Renaissance humanism

I naively assumed that none of this would be controversial, and I was quite unprepared for the hostility it provoked among some legates to the congress, chiefly from Northern Europe, who represented what I came to perceive as the Lutheran Establishment. This group was concerned to insist on the total originality of Luther and the uniquely German Origins of the Reformation. The paper would, I think, be more generally accepted today . It was first published in Luther and the Dawn of the Modern Era: Papers for the Fourth International Congress for Luther Research, De.H. A. Barman, Studies in the History of Christian Thought, Volvo. 8 (Elided: E. J. Brills, 1974), up. 127-149. It is reprinted here by permission of the publisher . Since the peculiar mixture of responsibility and presumption in the title of my paper will scarcely have escaped the notice of this distinguished audience, I feel some need to explain at the outset that it represents an assignment on the part of those who planne d our meeting.The significance of the problems to which it points is suggested by the great historians who have grappled with it in the past, albeit (a fact that should constitute something of a warning) with somewhat contrary results, among them Michelle, Diluted, and Throttles. [l] Its practical importance lies in the need of most of us to place our more limited inclusions in some broader historical framework; we must therefore reconsider, from ? 226 ? time to time, the relationship between Renaissance and Reformation.In spite of this, the subject has recently received little systematic attention, and many of us are still likely to rely, when we approach it, on unexamined and obsolete stereotypes. Obviously I cannot hope to remedy this state of affairs in a brief paper. Yet the progress of Renaissance studies in recent decades invites a reassessment of this classic problem, and I offer these remarks as an essay intended to stimulate further concussion. What has chiefly inhibited l arger generalization has been the extension and refinement of our knowledge, and with it a growth both in specialization and in humility.Thus we are increasingly reluctant to make broad pronouncements about either the Renaissance or the Reformation, much less about both at once. For as scholars we are divided not only between Renaissance and Reformation, or between Italy and Northern Europe; even within these categories most of us are specialists who would claim competence only in a particular aspect of Renaissance Florence or Venice, in one phase or another of Renaissance humanism, in Machiavelli or Erasmus, in later scholasticism or the history of piety, in Luther or Calvin or the sects.Under these conditions few students of the Renaissance have cared to look as far as the Reformation; and although Reformation scholars have been somewhat bolder, they have rarely pursued the question of Renaissance antecedents farther than northern humanism. Humanism is, indeed, the one subject tha t has recently encouraged forays into the problem of this paper; but although Barren, Devour, Spits, Libeling, and especially Charles Trinkets, among others, have made valuable intrusions to discussion,[2] the problem is still with us, primarily, I think, because we have not fully made up our minds about the meaning of Renaissance humanism.A result of this difficulty has been a tendency to focus special attention on Erasmus as a touchstone for the Renaissance, a role for which?for reasons that will emerge later in this paper?I think he is not altogether suited. It is, however, one measure of the complexity of our subject that we cannot approach the question of the relationship between Renaissance and Reformation without somehow first coming to terms with the implications of humanism. I should like to do so, however, obliquely rather than directly.It seems to me that although humanism, which assumed a variety of forms as it passed through successive stages and was influenced by diffe ring local conditions, was not identical with the more profound tendencies of Renaissance culture, it was nevertheless often likely to give them notable expression, and for reasons that were not accidental but directly related to the rhetorical tradition; whatever their ?227 ? differences in other respects, most recent interpretations of Renaissance humanism have at least identified it with a revival of rhetoric. ] What has been less generally recognized is the deeper significance of this revival. The major reason is, I think, that in our time the term rhetoric has become largely pejorative; we are inclined to couple it with the adjective mere. But for the Renaissance there was nothing shallow about rhetoric. Based on a set of profound assumptions about the nature, competence, and destiny of man, rhetoric gave expression to the deepest tendencies of Renaissance culture, tendencies by no meaner confined to men clearly identifiable as humanists, nor always fully expressed by men who h ave generally been considered humanists.I shall try in this paper to describe these tendencies, which seem to me to have exerted intolerable pressures on central elements in the medieval understanding of Christianity. And I will suggest that similar tendencies underlay the thought of the great Protestant Reformers. Thus the significance of Protestantism in the development of European culture lies in the fact that it accepted the religious consequences of these Renaissance tendencies and was prepared to apply them to the understanding of the Gospel.From this standpoint the Reformation was the theological fulfillment of the Renaissance. I Fundamental to the cultural movements of the Renaissance was a gradual accumulation of social and political changes: an economy increasingly dependent on commerce rather than agriculture; a political structure composed of assertive particular powers; and a society dominated by educated laymen who were increasingly restive under clerical direction and increasingly aggressive in pressing their own claims to dignity and self-determination.A commercial economy and the more and more openly uncoordinated conduct of politics supplied the social base for a new vision of man's place in the world, and of the world itself. Social experience rooted in the land had perhaps encouraged a sense of broad, natural regularities ultimately responsive to cosmic forces and inhibiting to a sense of the significance of change; but the life of a merchant community and the ambitious operations of independent rulers made all experience contingent on the interaction between unpredictable forces and the practical ingenuity and energies of men.Under these conditions the possibility of cosmic order seemed remote, but in any case of little relevance to human affairs; and the obvious rule of change in the empirical world encouraged efforts at its comprehension and eventually ? 228 ? stimulated the awareness of history, that peculiarly Hebraic and Christian?as opposed to Hellenic or Hellenic?contribution to the Western consciousness.Meanwhile new political realities and the claims of laymen undermined the hierarchical conceptions that had defined the internal structure of the old unified order of the cosmos, within which the affairs of this world had been assigned their proper place. [4] It will also be useful to observe at this point that these developments were by no meaner confined to Italy; I will touch briefly at a later point on the implications of this fact for the Renaissance problem.It is not altogether wrong to emphasize the positive consequences of these developments which, by freeing human activity from any connection with ultimate patterns of order, liberated an exuberance that found expression in the various dimensions of Renaissance creativity. Bureaucrat's insight that the autonomy of politics converted the prince into an artist of sorts may require modification; yet the new situation made all human arrangements potentiall y creative in a sense hardly possible so long as the basic principles of every activity were deduced from universal principles.The notion of the state as a work of art points to the general process of colonization and reminds us that the culture of the Renaissance extended far beyond its brilliant art and literature, and was perhaps even more significant in its implications than in its accomplishments. It had, however, another and darker side. It rested on the destruction of the sense of a definable relationship between man and ultimate realities. It severed his connection with absolute principles of order, not so much by denying their existence as by rejecting their accessibility to the human understanding.It deprived him of a traditional conception of himself as a being with distinct and organized faculties attuned to the similarly organized structure of an unchanging, and in this sense dependable, universe. Above all, therefore, it left him both alone in a mysterious world of unp redictable and often hostile forces, and at the same time personally responsible in the most radical sense for his own ultimate destiny. For he was now left without reliable principles and? because the directive claims of the church also depended heavily on the old conceptions?reliable agencies of guidance.These darker aspects of Renaissance culture eventually squired, therefore, a reformulation of Christian belief, and we shall now examine them a bit more closely. Renaissance thought has sometimes been represented as a reassertion of ancient rationalism against the supernaturalism of the Middle Ages. The formulation is, of course, both inaccurate and misleading. In the thirteenth century some intellectual leaders had been notably hospitable to Greek philosophy, and had tried to coordinate it with revelation.But ? 229 ? it was precisely the possibility of such coordination that Renaissance culture?insofar as it differed from what had preceded it?characteristically denied; in this se nse Renaissance thought was less rationalistic (if not necessarily less rational) than that of the Middle Ages. In fact it was inclined to distinguish between realms, between ultimate truths altogether inaccessible to man's intellect, and the knowledge man needed to get along in this world, which turned out to be sufficient for his purposes.Thus the Renaissance attack on scholasticism had a larger implication as well as a specific target; it implied, and occasionally led to, the rejection of all systematic philosophy. From Patriarch, through Salutation and Villa, to Machiavelli, Pompano, ND the Venetians of the later Renaissance, the leaders of Renaissance thought rejected any effort to ground human reflection or action on metaphysics: and at the same time they insisted on the autonomy of the various dimensions of human concern and the relativity of truth to the practical requirements of the human condition.In this sense, although truth was robbed of some grandeur, it was also made more human; and if Aristotle was less and less respected as a vehicle of eternal wisdom, he could be all the more admired as a man. [5] Under such conditions philosophy could evidently contribute nothing to theology; indeed, its virtual effects were likely to be adverse since it encouraged malice and pride. Related to the attack on metaphysical speculation was an attack on hierarchy, which rested ultimately on metaphysically based conceptions of the internal structure of all reality.The repudiation of hierarchy was most profoundly expressed in Nicholas of Cuss's conception of the infinite, which made every entity equally distant from?and thus equally near to?God;[6] a similar impulse perhaps lurks behind Villa's rejection of Pseudo-Dionysus. [7] But partly because the formulations of Susan smacked too such of metaphysics, partly because the problem of hierarchy was peculiarly related to social change, the attack on hierarchy was likely to receive more overtly social expression.It to ok a general form in the effort to substitute a dynamic conception of nobility through virtue for the static nobility of birth,[8] a specific form in the impulse (often expressed in legislation and the practical policies of states)[9] to consider the clergy in no way superior to other men but, on the contrary, as equal in the obligations of citizenship (if generally less competent in practical affairs), at least as alienable to sin, and in as desperate a need for salvation as other men, whom it was their obligation to serve rather than to command.This suggested at least that social order was unrelated to cosmic order, but it also raised the possibility that order per SE was of a kind quite different from what had been supposed. For the age of the Renaissance was by no meaner oblivious to the ? 230 ? need for order, which indeed historical disasters had converted into the most urgent of problems. But its very urgency intensified the necessity of regarding order as a practical rather than a metaphysical issue. Bitter experience seemed to demonstrate that order had to be brought down to earth, where it could be defined in limited and manageable ways.And, as the occasional intrusions of the clergy into politics appeared periodically to demonstrate, the attempt to apply ultimate principles to concrete problems was likely only to interfere with their practical solution. This was a central point not only for Machiavelli and his polities successors; it also molded the numerous constitutional experiments of the Renaissance, with their repudiation of hierarchically defined lines of authority in favor of order through a balance of interests and their appeal to immediate local needs and the right of local self- determination.The best arrangements, in these terms, were not those that most accurately reflected some absolute pattern but those that best served the specific and limited human purposes for which they were instituted. But although a sense of the limitation of the human intellect was basic to the thought of the Renaissance, this negation had a positive corollary in a new conception of the human personality which also seemed to correspond better to the experience supplied by a new social environment.Men whose lives consisted in the broad range of experiences, ontogenesis, and human relationships that characterized existence in the bustling and complicated modern world could no longer find plausible an abstract conception of man as a hierarchy of faculties properly subject to reason; instead the personality presented itself as a complex and ambiguous unity in which the will, primarily responsive to the passions, occupied a position at the center.One result of this conception was to undermine the contemplative ideal; if man's reason was weak but his will strong, he could only realize himself in this world through action, indeed he was meant for a life of action. Another was to reduce suspicion of the body; in the absence of the old psychologica l hierarchy, the body could no longer be held merely base and contemptible. Action required its use, and the new integrity of the personality reduced the possibility of attributing the human propensity to evil primarily to the physical or sensual aspect of man's nature.Human passions now also acquired a positive value, as the source of action. [10] This new anthropology, articulated by Patriarch, Salutation, and Villa, required a reconsideration of the problem of immortality and led eventually to the ardent discussions of the soul in which Pompano figured. It also pointed to the political and historical conceptions of Machiavelli and Caricaturing, who emphasized the primacy of will and passion, as well as to the psychological interests of a host of Renaissance writers. 11] ? 231 ? In addition man was defined as a social being; if he lost one kind of participation in a larger reality, namely his abstract position as a member of the human species in the cosmic hierarchy of being, he, obtained another with, perhaps, more tangible satisfactions: his membership as a concrete individual in the particular human community in which he lived, now an essential rather than an accidental condition of is existence. Thus the values of human community now achieved full recognition.Human virtue was defined not as an abstraction but as a function of relationship with other men; man's active nature was understood to achieve full expression only in a life of social responsibility, and indeed his happiness was seen as dependent on human community. Furthermore, since effective participation in society required some wealth, the conception struck another blow at medieval asceticism. On the other hand the demands of life in society also stimulated a vision of human existence very different from that implicit in the contemplative ideal.For life in society was patently marked by a conflict of opposing interests that could rarely (if men were honest) be identified with absolute good or e vil; and to incessant struggle with other men was added, in social existence, the temptations that inevitably beset anyone who chooses to engage with rather than to withdraw from the world. The life appropriate to men in this world was thus not repose (however desperately one might long for it) [12] but a constant and morally ambiguous warfare, with the outcome ever in doubt. By the same token earthly life had also to be seen as dynamic, as subject to change in all its aspects.Human communities could be seen to rise, flourish, and decay; and the philological investigations of Renaissance humanists supplemented common experience by revealing the general outlines of ancient civilization and thus demonstrating how much had changed during the intervening centuries. [13] They also wrote histories that communicated not only this perspective on the past, with its implication that human culture is not an absolute but relative to its times, but in addition other aspects of the Renaissance vi sion of life: the active and social nature of man, the values of community, the incapability of conflict and change.This vision found its fullest expression in the rhetorical culture of the Renaissance. Humanist oratory was based on the conception of man as a social being motivated by a will whose energies stemmed from the passions. This conception led in turn to a distinctive concern with communication as the essential bond of life in society, as well as to a new human ideal of the well-rounded, eloquent, and thus socially effective man of affairs.The purpose of communication, in this view, could not be the transmission of an absolute wisdom, which the human mind was incompetent to reach, but the attainment of concrete and practical ends. Ђ? 232 ? Such communication had above all to be persuasive; it had to affect the will by swaying the passions, rather than merely to convince the mind; in short it needed to penetrate to the center of the personality in order to achieve result s in visible acts. And the significance of the need for persuasion should also be remarked.It implied a life in society that could not be controlled by authority and coercion through a hierarchical chain of command but depended instead on the inward assent of individuals. It was therefore no accident that the rhetorical culture of Italian humanism achieved its fullest development in republics. In addition the needs of broad communication pointed eventually to the development and use of vernacular languages, a more important concern of Renaissance humanism than has sometimes been recognized. 14] II It should be immediately apparent that this set of attitudes imposed great strains on traditional Catholicism. [1 5] It undermined the effort to base earthly existence on abstract principles identified with divine wisdom, and to relate the visible and changing world of ordinary experience to the invisible and immutable realm of the spirit. Both the comforts in this relationship and its imp lications for the guidance and intro of lower things by higher were seriously threatened.From a Renaissance perspective the arguments by which it was supported seemed at best frivolous, at worst a specious rationalization of claims to power in this world on behalf of a group of men whose attention should be directed exclusively to the next. And behind such suspicions we may also discern the perception of man as primarily a creature of will and passion. In this light intellectual claims were likely to be construed as masks for motives that could not bear inspection; dogma itself might be no more than an instrument of tyranny.In addition, since a contemplative repose now seemed inappropriate to the actual nature of man, as well as a breach of responsibility for the welfare of others, the ideal form of the Christian life required redefinition. Finally, the problem of salvation was transformed. Alone in an ultimately unintelligible universe, and with the more fundamental conception of s in and the problems of its control opened up by the new anthropology, man could no longer count on the mediation either of reason or of other men in closer contact with the divine than himself.His salvation depended on an immediate and personal relation with God. Here it is necessary to pause for a more searching look at one of the key terms of our title: Renaissance . The conceptions I have so far reviewed ? 233 ? have been based largely on developments in Italy, and this would suggest a vision of the Renaissance, or of Renaissance culture, as initially and perhaps primarily an Italian affair.But this audience is well aware that the tendencies I have described were also present in a variety of movements outside Italy, if in somewhat different forms. It is obvious, for example, that later medieval piety exhibited similar impulses; ND that, in spite of the antipathy of humanists to scholastic speculation (though here we need to be more precise about what was actually under attack), t he later schoolmate played a major if largely independent part in bringing underlying assumptions to the surface and in attempting to accommodate theology to them. 16] Perhaps, therefore, the time has come to expand, as well as to make more specific, our conception of what was central to the age of the Renaissance, and also to abandon the traditional contrast between Italy and the North, which seems to me to eve been in some measure the result of a failure to get beneath surface differences.If I have concentrated on Italian thought in this sketch, I have done so partly to bring out the fundamental unity of European spiritual development, partly because the affinities between Protestantism and later Scholasticism have been more regularly a concern of Reformation scholarship than the parallels with the Renaissance in Italy. What is nevertheless increasingly clear is that the process of redefining Christianity to bring it into correspondence with the new assumptions about man and the w orld as gradual, and that it was taking place simultaneously throughout Europe.Largely because of the recent profound book of Charles Trinkets, it is unnecessary to review in detail the process by which the pressures for religious change implicit in the assumptions of Renaissance culture operated among the humanists of Italy. They are already discernible in Patriarch, and they seem to have reached a climax in Lorenz Villa. In a general sense they may be attributed to the special loneliness and despair of men who could no longer regard religious truth as a body of knowledge of the name order as other knowledge that was communicable through similar kinds of intelligible discourse.Nor could the institutional fiddles encouraged by ecclesiastical authority as an alternative to rational theology provide a satisfactory solution to the problem. Not only did the idea of implicit faith clash with the growing sense of individual spiritual dignity among pious laymen; in addition, discredited by its impotence, its worldliness, the presumed irrelevance of its abstract theology, and a sacramental and disciplinary externalities increasingly inadequate to assuage the secularly intense guilt of the age, the church could no longer be regarded as a dependable guarantor of truth. Ђ? 234 ? Thus, driven by a profound yearning for immediate contact with the eternal,[17] the humanists of the early Italian Renaissance moved perceptibly toward a simple religion of grace based on the Scriptures and apprehended by the individual through faith. Patriarch typically began with insights into his own inner conflicts and the discovery that these could only be resolved by throwing himself on God's mercy in a faith that was at once the highest form of knowledge and at the same time different n kind from all other knowledge; confusion on this point seemed to him the most dangerous error.Salutation, concerned as a sterner moralist to protect human freedom and responsibility within a religion of grace, wrestled with the problem of predestination. And with Villa Justification by faith received an even fuller exploration, the role of priest and sacrament in the economy of salvation was correspondingly reduced, and that of Scripture, the Word whose authenticity could be established by philology and which spoke directly to the individual, was enlarged. 18] Corresponding to the distinction between philosophy and faith was the demand or a sharper distinction between the church and the world; the separation of realms in one area seemed to lead naturally to separation in others. In its demands for a spiritual church, the new historicism of the Renaissance collaborated with the insistence of the Italian states on freedom from clerical interference and with their grievances against Rome as a political force. [19] The study of the historical church revealed the spiritual costs of the confusion of realms. 20] At the very least, as men of the Renaissance with some political experience were in a position to know, the effective use of power in the world was always morally ambiguous;[21] and meanwhile the growing participation of popes and prelates in secular politics had been accompanied by an increasing neglect of the spiritual mission of the church. Thus, if reform required a return to the past, the reason was above all that the early church had been true to its spiritual characters. [22] Only a spiritual church, devoted to that which does not change, could stand above history and thus resist decay.Villa's attack on the Donation of Constantine was not an isolated document;[23] it fleets a concern with the church, its earthly role and its spiritual mission, that runs through much of Renaissance historiography, from Muscat at the beginning of the fourteenth century to Machiavelli, Caricaturing, and Far Paolo Carpi. [24] The rediscovery of grace was closely related to the new vision of man; philosophy, as Patriarch recognized, was incapable of converting man at the crucial center of his being. â€Å"It is one thing to know,† he declared, â€Å"another to love; one thing to understand, another to will. What was required was a transformation not merely of the intellect but of the ? 235 ? hole personality, so that Christian conversion would find appropriate expression in a life of love and active responsibility for the welfare of others. And, as in the world, the essential meaner for such a transformation was not rational appeal to the intellect but rhetorical appeal to those deeper levels in man that alone could move the will. Thus Patriarch argued for the superiority over rational philosophers of moral teachers who could sow the love of virtue in the very hearts of men. 25] For Villa rhetoric was thus the only branch of secular learning (except for philology) applicable to theology. 26] The implications of this position for the importance and character of preaching seem clear. A new conception of man was also reflected in a changed conc eption of God, in accordance, perhaps, not only with Renaissance emphasis on man's creation in God's likeness and image but also with Calling's recognition of the reciprocal relationship between man's understanding of himself and his knowledge of God. 27] Like man, God could no longer be perceived as a contemplative being, as Aristotle unmoved mover, operating in the universe not directly but through a research of intermediate powers. [28] Laymen active in the world required a God who was also active, who exercised a direct and vigilant control over all things, like that to which they aspired for themselves.God too had therefore to be perceived as primarily will, intellectually beyond man's grasp yet revealing something of himself? all, at any rate, that man needed to know?in his actions, above all as recorded in Holy Scripture. And from Patriarch's sense of the free, mysterious, and incalculable nature of God,[29] Salutation went on to defend the anthropomorphic representations f G od in the Bible as a form of communication appropriate to men's capacities. [30] Villa was, as one might expect, even clearer that the God of philosophy could not be the God of faith. 31] In spite of all this, it is nevertheless undeniable that the culture of the Italian Renaissance did not culminate in Protestantism, although even on this point our old sense of the immunity of Italy to the impulses of the Reformation is no longer altogether tenable. [32] Yet it remains true that the religious thought of Renaissance Italy remained no more than an incoherent bundle of monumental insights, and it was unable to rid itself of fundamental contradictions; again, however, the contrast with Northern Europe seems hardly absolute.Above all it failed to complete its conviction of man's intellectual limitations, which pushed him only part of the way into the realm of grace, with full conviction of his moral impotence. Even here its vision of man suggests a deepening in the understanding of sin and the human obstacles to salvation; and there is abundant evidence of a pessimistic estimate of the human condition in Patriarch, Salutation, Pogo, Villa, and later, in a different form, in Machiavelli andCaricaturing. Yet Renaissance emphasis on the central importance of the will frequently served chiefly to nourish the moralist that so deeply permeated later medieval piety,[33] contributing both to the notion of Christianity as the pursuit of moral perfection and of the church as essentially a system of government; [34] Renaissance humanism remained, in Lather's sense, Appealing.The consequence was, however, that Renaissance culture in Italy, like Scholastic theology in the north, helped to intensify, from both directions at once, the unbearable tension between he moral obligations and the moral capacities of the Christian that could at last find relief only in either a repudiation of Renaissance attitudes or the theology of the Reformation. But it could not resolve the problem itself, and we must ask why this was so. Part of the explanation is connected with the fact that some among the figures we have cited were lacking in theological interests, while the rest were amateurs whose major activity lay elsewhere.The result was an inability to develop the full implications of their assumptions, which was supplemented by prejudice against intellectual labor too closely resembling the Scholasticism they despised. In addition, closely attached to particular societies in which, traditionally, no distinction was made between Christianity and citizenship, they were unable to ach

Decision Making Process Paper Week One

Decision Making Process Paper Week One MGT 230 Decision making is part of a person’s every day daily routine. We all wake up and have to decide what we are going to wear for the day. Some of us may even decide not to get ready at all. The magnitude of peoples’ decisions is dependent on many factors. It is important to thoroughly analyze a situation before making decisions. My family and I had lived in Newport News, Virginia for about three years. My wife and I had rented our homes ever since we got married.In 2009, I finally received military orders to be stationed back home in beautiful Coronado, California in San Diego County. We had a common obstacle, where in San Diego did we want to live and did we really want to rent? â€Å"There’s no question that buying a house makes sense for some folks, but mainly for non-financial reasons. Owning a home gives you stability (you’re not at the mercy of a landlord) and freedom (you can do what you want with the pl ace). But financially, it’s not always the best bet. † (Roth [insert & â€Å"comma† and â€Å"Snell†] 2012) We had to figure out if owning was for us.First we went through all of our finances and determined how much dispensable income we had. Fortunately, we didn’t have much debt which gave us a pretty large positive margin between our income and our debts. We then determined how much we would likely spend on variable expenses such as gasoline, entertainment, utilities, etc. Once we determined how much we could afford to pay for rent or a mortgage, we immediately wrote a list of all the cities we wanted to live in San Diego according to school districts and safety for our children.Next we did rental searches and price searches for home in the cities we wanted to live in to get an idea of how much we would be paying for rent or a mortgage and if it was within our allowable spending limit. â€Å"The third stage of decision making involves determining the value or adequacy of the alternatives that were generated. In other words, which solution will be the best? † (Bateman, [insert â€Å"&† before comma†] Snell 2011) From this point, we had to determine which solution would work best for us.This narrowed down our search to two cities, and we realized that renting a home would cost just as much as owning a house that we would be happy with. We contacted a realtor that was recommended by my parents and began our search for a new house. During the time of our house search, there was a tax stimulus that we wanted to take advantage of for first time home buyers, but there was only a couple of months left in the program and I only had two weeks to look at houses and have an accepted offer.Also, if we didn’t choose a house before I left, we would have lost our opportunity to take advantage of the tax credit that was available to first time home buyers. We felt very rushed, looked at a handful of houses and quic kly put an offer in for the best one we saw due to time restraints. I flew back to Virginia from leave and found out our offer was accepted. We closed escrow in a month and my family moved into our new house. It was an exciting time in our lives. Chapter three’s Managerial Decision Making similarly resembles our decision making process when we decided to buy our first home with the exception of a couple steps.We didn’t quite discover a problem as stated for a first step in the decision making process, but we did determine that buying a home would be a better overall decision for us. The book’s second and third steps were similar to ours because we did generate another solution which was to rent, and we did evaluate each solution carefully by considering our finances and our desired living locations. In correlation to the books fourth step, we mistakenly ended up satisficing [insert â€Å"&† before comma†] and chose the first house that met our needs and achieved our goal.We implemented our decision by putting an offer in and buying the house. After the entire process, we have many regrets and have determined what we will do next time we purchase a house. The next time around, I would want to implement the step of â€Å"making a choice† a lot better. Instead of satisficing [check spelling] I would want to maximize our choice by taking our time and finding a handful of houses that suit our needs before deciding on purchasing again. Especially in this time where foreclosures and short sales are a dime a dozen, there are many properties to take advantage from.Decision making is very important in our daily lives and even minute decisions can change our future drastically. It is very important to carefully assess and make decisions. References Bateman, T. , Snell, S. (2011). Management: Leading & Collaborating in a Competitive World (9th Ed. ). (pp. 91-92). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Roth, J. (2012, December 03). Is it better to rent or to buy? Time Business & Money. Retrieved March 30, 2013, from http://business. time. com/2012/12/03/is-it-better-to-rent-or-to-buy/

Ethical principles that you personally believe that reflect natural Essay

Ethical principles that you personally believe that reflect natural laws that are self -evident and that all people ought to ascribe to - Essay Example The ethical principles guided by natural law all pertain to the common good of all. They are the set of principles generally accepted by al. An example of an ethic dictated by natural law and generally accepted is morality. People from all cultures, religion and races agree that everyone should uphold morality in all aspects. According to Cheryl things that people should not do include, taking someone’s life, blasphemy, lying all these are ethics the humanity should uphold. All these ethics are known by all humanity; it is also given by god and directed towards the greater good of the society. These are some of the vices that the human law terms as natural law. Even with the ethics being set people may choose not to follow them, the consequences’ of such actions will be enacted by human law (Cheryl, 67). Ethics dictated by natural law instructs the people on the use of our liberty. The ethics under natural law guides the code of conduct we as humans should uphold collectively. It is a form of social configuration that will allow the community to pursue peace, contentment and success (Cheryl,

Giovanni Baronzio Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Giovanni Baronzio - Research Paper Example In particular, these paintings form the first narrative cycle to have been used in teaching human beings about the life of Jesus Christ. The paintings were introduced into programs of church decorations. However, the paintings could not capture the miracles performed by Jesus Christ (Bailey 19). (Bailey 31) Artist: Giovanni Barozio Size: 500x382px Genre: Christian painting Material: panel Date of completion: 1352 The painting of Giovanni, especially the scenes from the life of Christ date back to the time of Constantine. Constantine had devoted more time in building quality buildings in the holy land to honor the life and events that surrounded the life of Jesus Christ. The scenes of Christ represented the nativity at Bethlehem. The mosaic represented the nativity and the adoration of Christianity. It is necessary to note that: â€Å"scenes from the life of Christ† were symbolic rather than being narrative in character (Bailey, P 7). Scenes from the life of Christ paintings ca pture Jesus’ life moments such as annunciation, Joseph’s dream, and the presentation in the temple, the adoration of the magi, the flight into Egypt, and the brutal killing of infants by King Herod. The images of the infancy of Christ illustrated both the canonical gospels and various apocryphal texts (Carvalho 57). In clearly capturing the life of Jesus Christ, Giovanni’s â€Å"scenes from the life of Christ† concentrated on the physicality of Jesus and spiritual elements. The crucification of Jesus Christ on the cross was well captured by Giovanni through paintings. Dark colors have been used to represent the gloomy mood that surrounded the Crucification of Jesus Christ. In addition, after the death of Christ, Darkness in the paintings shows the 6 hour total darkness that followed (Carvalho 57). Historical Context Scenes from the life of Christ show deep devotion into Christ as well as the development of humanism in early 1300s. The carving was made of ivory and was owned by rich members of the society. The paintings of Giovanni Baronzio represented spiritual devotion as well as being used as educational aids. The composition of the â€Å"scene from the life of Christ† painting is structured in various levels. There are panels in the painting that are further subdivided in three horizontal rows. Each row aims at showing and representing the life of Jesus Christ at each stage (Kanter 49). Christ’s early life is captured in the bottom row. The painting represents the annunciation of Jesus Christ. During this period, angel Gabriel appeared to Mary, informing her of Jesus Christ’s birth. Giovanni paintings show the period of Jesus’ birth. In particular, the Holy Spirit has been symbolized by the alighting dove. In showing where the Holy Spirit was meant to be, Giovanni painted the dove top be perching on Mary’s forehead. Mary’s purity was represented by Giovanni through the use of lilies (Kant er 50). The next painting represented nativity in the life of Jesus Christ. The painting has images of Mary looking lovingly at the face of the newly born baby Jesus Christ. In addition, the paintings included the images of donkeys and ox; these animals have been used to represent the humility represented by such animals in the society. The birth of Jesus Christ would be well captured by scenes of humility. Humility could only be captured through painting images of donkeys

Discuss the different eras of resistance kinship relationships to Essay

Discuss the different eras of resistance kinship relationships to Aboriginal people - Essay Example Aboriginals are more found in Australia, India, Africa etc. they are different in the patterns of dressing, adoring, intake of food and medicinal practices. They have been different in various eras like primitive society, agricultural society, industrial society and post modern society. Kinship is the main objective of the sociologists since it is the basic factor in the organization of the society. They focus on the history of kinship irrespective of nation, state and geographical area. â€Å"Kinship systems establish relationships between individuals and groups on the model of biological relationships between parents and children, between siblings, and between marital partners.† (Kinship: a dictionary of sociology, 1998). But some theorists are on the view that the relationship between wife and husband through which they are related by marriage do not include in the category of kinship. They tell that this relationship is called as affinal relationship. But some other theorists say that the biological relationship is not necessary to determine kinship because some children have social father who takes the responsibility of them and therefore kinship must be established on account of social fathers. When we think about kinship the entire influential factors must be considered like the way of relationship, cultural and political background, economic status etc. There are two theories which emerged in the second half of the twentieth century and they are alliance theory and descent theory. Descent theory stresses that the role of kinship system is to understand political entities of the lineage group in the history. When descent theory gives more importance on the descent and succession, alliance theory emphasizes on the marriage. â€Å"Ernest L Schusky has given the following types of kinship.† (Joshi 1999, p.109). First type of kinship is consanguineal kinship which means the relation by blood like parent child

Unemployment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Unemployment - Research Paper Example Unemployment If the efficiency of the economy is to be maximized, then the all the individuals in the economy would be employed at a certain wage rate. An unemployed person is simultaneously unproductive as well as a huge drain on the resources of the society leading to a huge drop in the aggregate output production in the economy. Psychological impacts of unemployment are also adverse which leads to long run degradation of an economy. The obnoxious characteristics of unemployment is one of the foremost problems in every countries of the world be it a developed or developing and the government of those countries are facing every day challenges and formulating as well as implementing strategies in order to mitigate the problem of unemployment (Griffiths & Rotheim, 2007, p.2). The paper will seek to analyze the historical evolution of unemployment along with the current status of it with various problems faced by the people from time to time and the unemployment rates in different countries. Follow ing this, focus will be entailed on the endeavor adapted by different governments for neutralizing this grave problem. Finally the paper will inject some self assessed recommendations for solving the problem of unemployment. II. Definition of the problem Unemployment Unemployment is the macroeconomic problem which affects people most directly and in a severe manner. For majority of the people in the world (although there is voluntary unemployment and other forms of unemployment which is discussed later in this segment), a loss in job correlates directly with a reduced living standard and immense psychological distress. (Mankiw, 2005, p.155). It is one of the central themes of discussions for economists and the politicians round the globe in the identification of different causes of unemployment and simultaneously involves in the improvement of several public policies affecting the unemployed. In this respect, a famous statement by Thomas Carlyle can be mentioned which is as follows: â€Å"A man willing to work, and unable to find work, is perhaps the saddest sight that fortune’s inequality exhibits under the sun† (Huebner, 1932, p.49). Now a short insight on different types of unemployment can be provided in order to have a more brief idea of the unemployment arena. Frictional unemployment Within the sphere of unemployment, it has been found that a certain amount of time has been spent within the job tenure of the individuals and finding another employment. The labor market is dynamic market and at a particular point of time there will remain a certain number of unemployed persons and the crux of frictional unemployment leads to acknowledging the fact those adjustments in the employment takes some time which is indeed a harsh reality (Mankiw, 2005, p.603). Structural unemployment This type of unemployment generates when there is wide gap between the skills required by the employers of firms and skills provided by the employees or the labor and th is type of unemployment experiences long spells. It has been found in the industry of rocket science there can generate higher or lower unemployment in the submarket rather than the national market. In this industry if the trade agreements are such that it allows for the outsourcing in the other countries, then the labor market for the rocket scientist will perish in the domestic country (Schmitt, J & Warner, 2011, p.1). Voluntary Unemployment The notion of the voluntary

Red Bull GmBH Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Red Bull GmBH - Case Study Example According to the study  U.K. market already flooded by big market players like that of Coca-Cola and Pepsi Cola has created a tougher competition for the Austrian based company to make a market of its own and further generate business. The company has been among the top selling companies but it makes no mark in the quantity of the products sold. It can be understood as the companies sought to benefit the socials for individual well-being and much better lifestyles. Certainly demographic impacts have been seen by the company in segmenting the market. They have been targeting the youth, middle aged and elderly people of the society and subsequently these people are attracted to products that rejuvenate and regenerates. The market is said to be functional with variety of products in the food and beverages segments are launched each day. Each company had its own unique way of attracting the customer base. Red Bull also thought out a process of marketing and advertising its most valuabl e product. It introduced ‘buzz marketing’ or it can be said as word-of-mouth. It was a strategical concept introduced by the company to attract UK customers. To make marketing of the product much more different from the traditional concepts, Red Bull resorted to campaigns in the sports arena. It got itself associated with various youth drinks especially in the extreme sports zone like motor racing, mountain biking, snow boarding and dance music. Gradually Red Bull started to get results for their hard work. With growing demand for the product Red Bull became clear market winner in energy drinks consumption in the U.K.

Plagiarism and integrity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Plagiarism and integrity - Essay Example In short, the education that they are paying for and the years of their life that they are sacrificing are ultimately wasted if this is a habitual trait that will be exhibited again and again. Yet, there are many reasons for why low academic integrity are noted within various individuals. As such, the following analysis will briefly present some of these reasons and causes and help the reader to come to a more informed understanding for why academic integrity is so vitally important and what motivates individuals to cheat the system and to cheat their own education. One of the core reasons for why individuals display a low level of academic integrity has to do with the fact that they are simply lazy to learn the required material or perform the required task (East and Donnelly 3). Although it is true that laziness is not a vital or fundamental flaw, allowing it to dictate how one displays levels of honesty or academic integrity is most certainly a core flaw. Another reason for why low levels of academic integrity are exhibited has to do with an individual that might have a very low level of familiarity or comfort with a given subject. For instance, an international student that struggles with English as a second language may be tempted to plagiarize as a means of performing a very difficult task easily (Mahmud and Bretig 438). Last but not least, an individual may be tempted to exhibit a low level of academic integrity in the eventuality that they have put an assignment off to the very last minute; so much so that the only recourse for accompli shing it within the time period in question is to cheat and present someone else’s work as their own (Spain 154). In essence, there are many reasons for why students cheat; however, none of them are more noble than another and none of them can be excused. As such, it is necessary to ensure that all

Family and Medical Leave Act Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Family and Medical Leave Act - Research Paper Example It is applicable to all public employees and those in private companies with at least 50 employees. Certain FMLA provisions are favorable for employers and employees. However, the area of Human Resources (HR) has struggled with some of its aspects, especially those in regards to episodic or chronic conditions, sporadic use of leave or serious conditions of health. HR departments are facing challenges in terms of keeping track of intermittent leave; chronic abuse of such leave; morale problems arising from employees required to cover for absent colleagues; associated costs of productivity loss due employees being on leave; vague medical leave certification documentation by healthcare professionals; and the uncertainty of the leave requests’ legitimacy (Merkle, 2012). On the employers’ part, they are challenged by the realization that employees will not always notify them promptly when they require FMLA leave, more so in cases of unexpected conditions. Regulations stipulate that employees give a notice of at least 30 days in advance, but this is not practical in unforeseeable emergencies. Therefore, it becomes a considerable problem for the employer and HR department to plan for the absence of their employees. Eligible employees are the greatest beneficiaries of FMLA, so long as they can give sufficient notice with supporting evidence of the need for leave. They have enough time to address family and personal obligations while their jobs are still guaranteed. The Department of Labor (DOL) proposed a pitch in 2011, aiming to promote the clarity of behavior associated with leave-taking (BLR, 2012). According to the DOL, it is imperative for employees, employers and HR departments to develop compliance programs and regulatory priorities based on current and credible data rather than anecdotal and outdated information. An example of pending legislation is that of

Freedman talk Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Freedman talk - Essay Example The purpose of the speech was to warn Americans into being led to the same trap and fate for primarily analogous reasons. The distressful contents of Freedman’s speech could be interpreted differently by readers. One could immediately be swayed and convinced of the veracity and credibility of Freedman’s contentions given that he was regarded as a successful Jewish businessman with inside connections to Jewish organizations and famous American leaders of his time. However, some people would still regard his arguments as merely preposterous due to the antithetical information, the validity of which should have set the records straight. In sum, Freedman’s speech gained notoriety and controversy in terms of the delicate nature of the information he revealed. By pinpointing the major tragic events to the Khazars, a warlike tribe, who supposedly carries the commitment to provoke chaos with their communal interests for economic gain, readers would continue to reflect on his credibility and his inner personal or professional purpose for the discourse. Freedman’s speech would continue to be a subject for literary

Stalins aims for the transformation of the Russian economy Essay Example for Free

Stalins aims for the transformation of the Russian economy Essay To what extent did Stalin succeed in achieving his aims for the transformation of the Russian economy? Under the NEP, Russia had managed to recover from seven years of warfare, but by the late 1920s Russia had still not been able to develop its economy beyond the level of 1914 and its agriculture was still very backward. Stalin felt that under the NEP, the Russian economy was underperforming and he felt he had to change this as he wanted to modernise Russia and move it forwards to a truly Socialist society. Stalin wanted to transform Russian economy in order for Russia to be a socialist society there had to be more workers than peasants and the country had to be at industrially advanced. This would mean that the Russian economy, which relied heavily on agriculture, would have to be changed and modernised industries would have to be developed and Russia would have to become an industrialised country. In 1929 in the Great Turn, Stalin introduced the collectivisation of agriculture; this set of policies, along with the Five Year Plans, created the framework for what became known as the Soviet centrally planned economy and transformed the Soviet economy. Stalin, through collectivisation and industrialisation, managed to transform the Russian economy. One of Stalins aims for the transformation of the economy was to build up heavy industry and increase the industrial output of the Soviet Union through the Five Year Plans, and to catch up with the industrialised West. Stalins policy of industrialisation was based on central planning the state produced three consecutive Five Year Plans that set production and output targets for all areas of industry, with emphasis on building up heavy industry and creating new industry. In order to provide capital to finance industrialisation, Stalin introduced collectivisation, which modernised Russias agricultural system. These Five Year Plans broadly achieved Stalins aim. There was a huge increase in the productivity and output of heavy industry. Whole new industries were developed in Russia, like the chemical factories, tractor and machine tool plants. Many new factories were built, whole new industrial centres like Magnitogorsk were created and cities grew rapidly. Russia was gripped by gigantomania there was an emphasis on large-scale projects like the Dniepostroi Dam. Communications improved, the transport links in Russia were better than before and electricity became available to the masses. Russia had managed to industrialise and catch up with the West at a time when much of the Western world was suffering from an economic depression. However, the goods produced were often of a poor quality, as quantity was more important than quality for Stalin. There was also a great deal of wastage, raw materials were wasted and the production of goods was often inefficient. The Five Year Plans often had unrealistic production targets which factories struggled to meet. Another of Stalins aims was to modernise agriculture and increase productivity through collectivisation. He believed that the peasant-based farming methods used were inefficient and large collectivised state farms would vastly increase production. Stalin needed to carry out the collectivisation of agriculture to finance industrialisation and feed the workers in the cities. Large, collective farms were created, where peasants worked to increase production of grain. This was, to some extent, a success all agriculture was collective by 1941. By 1939, Russia had reached the same levels of production as 1928 with less peasants working on the farms. Also, farming was modernised, there was increased use of machinery and tractors on the collective farms, which made the work easier. However, the human cost of collectivisation was great. In 1932, there was a Great Famine, which was caused by a drop in production in the early 1930s this affected the Soviet Union badly, especially Ukraine where 5 million people died. By 1941, Russia had only just regained the production levels of 1928; there was no increase in production. Also, animals were not used efficiently, and in this sense the Russian farms were still quite backwards. Stalins final aim to transform the economy was to transform Russia into a truly Socialist economy, by turning peasants into workers and introducing central planning into the system. In order for Russia to be a truly Socialist society, there would have to be a greater number of workers than peasants a Socialist economy would be more focused on industry rather than agriculture. This would mean developing industry, so the number of workers would exceed the number of peasants. This would also mean eliminating the privileged classes such as the Kulaks, who were better off than ordinary peasants. Kulaks that refused to join collective farms and co-operate with the state were either exiled or sent to forced-labour camps. Stalin also aimed to get rid of the last vestiges of Capitalism this would mean getting rid of the NEP and replacing it with central planning. However, the Russian economy did not become truly Socialist. Wage differentials and bonuses created a privileged class among the workers. The working and living conditions for Russians were still very poor. The system relied heavily on force, in order for the transformation of the Soviet economy to take place. In conclusion, Stalin did partly succeed in achieving his aims for the transformation of the Russian economy. Stalin managed to industrialise and modernise Russia, many new key industries developed and Russia no longer relied solely on agriculture for its economy. The new, collective farms were more efficient than the old farms, the same amounts were produced with less peasants. By the 1940s, there were more workers than peasants and, generally, Russia was a more Socialist society. However, there were limits on this there was still a small privileged class, and working and living conditions in the Soviet Union were poor. Also, the transformation of the Soviet economy came at a human cost, and many people died as a result of the Great Famine and dangerous working conditions in factories.

Confidentiality of Health Information Essay Example for Free

Confidentiality of Health Information Essay 1. Should corrections be date and time stamped? Yes, it is very important to keep track of when changes are made to an individual’s medical records. Any correction made to confidential medical information should be time and date stamped. In addition, the name of the person who makes the changes should be recorded with the time and date change. should there not be a note of who makes changes to the medical record. An example of the negative consequences of not date and time stamping medical records, electronic or otherwise, is that in a court of law, one’s medical records could be inadmissible due to this simple negligence. A medical malpractice case, in which the patient deserves compensation for being diagnosed incorrectly, or not diagnosed at all, could hinge on this incredibly important detail. Whether or not the patient’s medical records was date and time stamped, as well as signed by the individual working on the patient’s electronic medical record. 2. When should the patient be advised of the existence of computerized databases containing medical information about the patient? A patient should be advised of the existence of computerized database containing medical information about the patient , before the patient’s physician releases said information to the entity keeping the computer bases. All medical information must be shared with the patient before any treatments are performed, so that the patient may give their informed consent for the treatment or procedure to be administered. If patients were unaware of the existence of their medical information stored in computerized database, they obviously would not have the knowledge to access their own records, which is highly unprofessional and detrimental to the patient’s health care in the future. According to the American Medical Association (AMA), patients have the right to know where their records are being stored and who has access to them for safety and privacy of the individual. 3. When should the patient be notified of purging of archaic or inaccurate information? States â€Å" procedures for purging the computerized data base of archaic or inaccurate data should be established and the patient and physician should be notified before and after the data has been purged.† It is essential that the patient and physician always know what is going on with their confidential medical records. Care must be taken to make sure that the medical record are never accidently mixed with other computer based record. With technology growing faster than most of us can keep up, most of today information is on computer. Either being stored on a disk, on websites, or even online storage . The American Medical Association (AMA), has issued opinion 5.07 confidentiality for computers. 4. When should the computerized medical database be online to the computer terminal? The computerized medical database is online to the computer terminal only when authorized computer programs requiring the medical data are in use. According to the (AMA ) policy, External individuals or organizations should not have online access to these computerized database. containing identifiable data from medical records patient. Access should be controlled through security measures. Some examples of these are encryption of the file, password to gain access to the file, or other user identification. In addition, leaving a terminal online to the database when it is not necessary can make it easier for hackers to get into the system. 5. When the computer service bureau destroys or erases records, should the erasure be verified by the bureau to the physician? I believe that when the computer services bureau destroys or erases the record, the physician should be notified in writing that it has taken place. Before records can be destroyed or erased the bureau has to establish that the physician has another copy, of some form, in his possession. The patient and the physician have the right to know any little alteration on any record. This will help in knowing what information has been erased and what significance it has as far as patient’s medical process is concerned. 6. Should individuals and organizations with access to the database be identified to the patient? Yes, all individuals and organizations with some form of access to the computerized databases, and the level of access permitted should be specifically identified in advance. Full disclosure of this information to the patients is necessary in obtaining consent to treatment. patient data should be assigned a security level appropriate for the data’s degree of sensitivity, which should be used to control who has access to the information. The patient has the right to know who have an access to his/her information and why. This will for the respect of the patient’s right to privacy and confidentiality. 7. Does the AMA ethics opinion mention encryption as a technique for security? Yes, the computerized data systems have a compromising information security. The (AMA) opinion is that â€Å" there should be controlled access to the computerized database via security procedures such as encryption (encoding), passwords, and other user identification including scan able badges†. Confidentiality agreements should be made with other healthcare professional whom the office networks with encryption is recommended if the network entails public channel of communication such a radio waves, telephone wires, and microwaves. This will increase the changes of information confidentiality. 8. In regard to electronic medical record (EMR), what is the policy for disclosing authorized data requested by third parties? The patient must give consent in writing authorization for disclosing any information about his/her medical record. the individual or groups requesting the data required to obtain the expressed consent of the patient. The dissemination of confidentiality medical data should be limited to only those individuals or agencies with a bona fide use of the data. As well as the fact that, the third parties receiving the Electronic – PHI , do not have the authorization to disclose the information to additional sources. Then , the database should disclose the least amount of E-PHI possible to serve the purpose , while also limiting the period of its use. Finally, the policy for disclosing the E-PHI is clear, the database must acquire consent for the dissemination of the least amount of information possible , the database must maintain the patient’s confidentiality, and, the third parties receiving the data may not disclose the data to any other organization or individual. American Medical Association, (AMA) opinion 5.07. REFERENTS: www.ama-assn.org/ Search box type, opinion 5.07 www.ahima.org/ www.ama-assn.org/ama/category

The Frequency Spectrum Allocated By Malaysian Communication Computer Science Essay

The Frequency Spectrum Allocated By Malaysian Communication Computer Science Essay International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000), also known as 3G or 3rd Generation, is the generation standard for mobile phones and telecommunication services. This generation is to meet specifications by the International Telecommunication Union. Various applications exist, including wide-area wireless voice phone, video calls, mobile, mobile TV Internet access and others. The details spectrum for IMT-2000 shows like below: International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT2000) Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) Upper band: 2110 to 2200 MHz Lower band: 1920 to 2010 MHz Time Division Duplex (TDD) Frequency: 1915 to 1920MHz Frequency: 2010 to 2025MHz Figure 1.1: Frequency spectrum IMT-2000.[2] Global system for mobile communications (GSM) is a second generation cellular telecommunications system was first designed in the 1980 [12]. Compared with the first generation, GSM is more advanced enhancements such as in security, quality, capacity, and the ability to support integrated services. For examples GSM services is GSM-900 and GSM-1800 in which used in the world like Europe, the Middle East, parts of Asia and others country. The details spectrum for GSM900 and GSM1800 shows like below; Global System for Mobile (GSM) in the 900 MHz Band Upper band: 925 to 960 MHz Lower band: 880 to 915 MHz Global System for Mobile System in the 1800 MHz Band Upper band: 1805 to 1880 MHz Lower band: 1710 to 1785 MHz Figure 1.2: Frequency spectrum GSM900.[2] Figure 1.3: Frequency spectrum GSM1800.[2] Summary for Service Operators [ Maxis, Celcom, Digi and U-Mobile]; Service Operator System Standard Frequency Spectrum (MHz) Access Code Commercial Name Service Offered Lower Band Upper Band Maxis Mobile Sdn Bhd GSM 900 GSM 1800 IMT-2000: FDD TDD 880-886, 905-915 1710-1735 1935-1950 2015-2020 925-93, 950-960 1805-1830 2125-2140 012 017 Maxis Voice call, SMS, MMS, data plans service, International roaming, WAP Celcom (Malaysia) Berhad GSM 900 GSM 1800 IMT-2000: FDD TDD 888-905 1735-1760 1950-1965 2020-2025 933-950 1830-1855 2140-2155 013 019 Celcom Voice call, SMS, MMS, data plans service, International roaming, WAP Digi Telecommunication Sdn Bhd GSM 900 GSM 1800 IMT-2000: FDD TDD 886-888 1760-1785 1965-1980 2010-2015 931-933 1855-1880 2155-2170 010 016 Digi Voice call, SMS, MMS, data plans service, International roaming, WAP U-Mobile Sdn Bhd IMT-2000: FDD TDD 1920-1935 1915-1920 2110-2125 018 U-mobile Voice call, SMS, MMS, WAP Question 2 The Fourth Generation (4G) technology candidates is foreseen most likely to be between Long Term Evolution Advanced (LTE-Advanced) proposed by the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) and Mobile WiMAX using 802.16m standardised by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Distinguish the technical differences between these two technologies and give your opinion on the scenario and deployment of 4G in the near future. Long Term Evolution Advanced (LTE-Advanced) proposed by the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) is new standard in networking technology tree move what was once realize GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSxPA networking technologies. It is a project Generation Partnership Project third (3GPP), administered under one name trademark by one of associations in partnership, European Telecommunications Standards Institute. LTE Evolution Figure 2.1: Mobile Technologies Charging The first generation of cellular systems were based on analog standards and are introduced in 80s middle. This with quick to bring to one second generation digitals cellular standard that made use of digital modulation and signal processing. The second generation also led to a technology fragmentation. Once many standard contests exist, however what remains now are two main branches: referred to as GSM and CDMA branches or alternately referred as the 3GPP and 3GPP2 branches. These branches remained separate as they migrated to 3G systems focusing on more efficient voice transport as well providing data-services. LTE originated in the 3GPP standards organization, and a competing specification (EV-DO Rev C) started in the 3GPP2 body as the next evolutionary step. However, the support for EV-DO Rev C has waned and it has now become clear that the 3GPP2 radio interface evolution has effectively ceased, allowing a single cellular technology. Figure 2.2: LTE provides a smooth evolutionary path for operators deploying all 3GPP and non-3GPP technologies. Technology Summary of LTE FDMA on uplink Scale able OFDM on downlink, Single Carrier Variable Spectrum Width from 3 to 20 MHz Up to 64 QAM, MIMO, Spatial Multiplexing(SM), LTE- Advanced Will be an evolution of LTE. Therefore LTE-Advanced must be backward compatible with LTE Release 8. Requirements will meet or even exceed IMT-Advanced requirements following the ITU-R agenda. Should support significantly increased instantaneous peak data rates in order to reach ITU requirements. Primary focus should be on low mobility users. It is required a further improvement of cell edge data rates. Mobile WiMAX using 802.16m standardised by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) IEEE 802.16 is a series of Wireless Broadband standards authored by the IEEE. The current version is IEEE 802.16-2009 amended by IEEE 802.16j-2009. IEEE 802.16 is written by a working group established by IEEE Standards Board in 1999 to develop standards for the global deployment of broadband Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks. The Workgroup is a unit of the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee [3]. WiMAX Evolution WiMAX grow almost independently (and in parallel) for cellular standard mentioned earlier. In late 90s, IEEE started a workgroup create one air interface to show multipoint wireless standard broadband. Working group lever DOCSIS (data on interface specification cable service) standard heavily especially in definition MACs layers. Original standard modified into 802.16d in 2004 introduce OFDM as transmission scheme. This standard intended at fixed applications and is sometimes referred to as fixed WiMAX. In 2005, 802.16d further improving to for support for mobility and provide OFDM delivery system scalable. This standard known as 802.16e/ mobile WiMAX. (It should be noted that products based on 802.16d and 802.16e inhering market and both classified as WiMAXs products lead to a few ambiguity on specific standard which is supported-802.16d or 802.16e.) Hope, 802.16e standard expanding to 802.16m which focusing on addition to ventilate interface specifications. This evolution is shown in Figure 2.3. Figure 2.3: WiMAX Evolution Technology Summary of WiMAX Scale able OFDM on downlink and uplink Variable Spectrum Width from 1.25 to 10 MHz Up to 64 QAM, MIMO, Spatial Multiplexing, Beamforming Mobile WiMAX deployed since 2008 IEEE802.16m and Mobile WiMAX Release 2 Lower latency through faster MAC/signaling Higher spectrum efficiency through more advanced and higher order MIMO solutions, including multiuser MIMO as well as lower MAC and PHY overhead. Higher peak and user data rates using wide-band carriers (including 20 MHz) and multicarrier aggregation. Enhanced coverage in high interference environments with improved preamble and control channel. Support for higher mobility through a faster feedback mechanism and link adaption. Flexible spectrum deployments (both FDD and TDD support contiguous bands) The scenario and deployment of 4G in the near future 4G refers to the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. It is a successor to 3G and 2G families of standards. The first was the move from 1981 analog (1G) to digital (2G) transmission in 1992. This was followed, in 2002, by 3G multi-media support, spread spectrum transmission and at least 200  kbit/s, soon expected to be followed by 4G, which refers to all-IP packet-switched networks, mobile ultra-broadband (gigabit speed) access and multi-carrier transmission. Pre-4G technologies such as mobile WiMAX and first-release 3G Long term evolution (LTE) have been available on the market since 2006 and 2009 respectively. According to the members of the 4G working group, the infrastructure and the terminals of 4G will have almost all the standards from 2G to 4G implemented. Although legacy systems are in place to adopt existing users, the infrastructure for 4G will be only packet-based (all-IP). Some proposals suggest having an open Internet platform. Technologies considered to be early 4G include: Flash-OFDM, the 802.16e mobile version of WiMax (also known as WiBro in South Korea), and HC-SDMA (see iBurst). Question 8 The public cellular service operator in Malaysia are subjected to mandatory standards for Quality of Service (QoS) or Grade of Service (GOS) by Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission (MCMC). List various parameters and schemes used for providing QoS/GOS in cellular network and discuss their advantages/disadvantages to the subscribers and operators. How can QoS provisioning be managed in the future 4G cellular network? There is two ways to measure the quality of voice services, Grade of Service (GoS) and the Quality of Service (QoS). GOS can be describe as a chances of a call in a circuit group being blocked or delayed for more than a specified interval and can be expressed as a vulgar fraction/decimal fraction. This is likely to happen to the busy hour when the traffic intensity is the greatest. Grade of service can viewed from the perspective of incoming versus outgoing calls, and is not necessarily equal in each direction or between different source-destination pairs. Quality of service (QOS) can also be called as voice grade or program grade which is a single circuit that is designed or conditioned to provide. Equalization for amplification over a specified band of frequency or for this case of digital data transported via analogue circuit can be one of the quality criteria for such circuit. One of the aspects for mobile quality of service in cellular telephone circuits is the probability of abnormal termination of the call. There is a lot of factor can affect the quality of service of the telecommunication network. From the customer`s point of view looking at this QoS can be describe as common phenomena and its judged by the user. However there is a standard metrics of QoS that can be used by the customer to measure the QoS. The coverage, accessibility and the audio quality is the indicator for this quality. For coverage, strength of the signal is measured using test equipment and this can be used to estimate the size of the cell. For accessibility its about determining the ability of the network to handle successful calls from mobile-fixed networks and from mobile-mobile networks. For audio quality it can be considers monitoring a successful for a period of time for the clarity of the communication channel. All these indicators are used by the telecommunications industry to judge the quality of service of the network. QoS provisioning be managed in the future 4G cellular network Nowadays, cellular network operators across the world have seen a rapid growth of mobile usage. Data usage per subscriber is increasing daily in particular and with the introduction of flat-rate tariffs and more advanced mobile devices. Services provider are moving from a single-service offering in the packet-switched domain to a multi-service offering by adding Value added services (VAS) that are also provided across the mobile broadband access. One of the examples of these Services is multimedia telephony and mobile-TV. These kind services have a different performance requirement in terms of the required bit rates and packet delays or any other examples. However solving these performance issues through over-provisioning typical is uneconomical due to the relatively high cost for transmission capacity in cellular access networks which includes radio spectrum and backhaul from the base stations. 4G broadband wireless technologies such as IEEE 802.16e/m and Third Generation Partnershi p Project (3GPP) Long Term Evolution (LTE) have been designed with different QoS (Quality of Service) frameworks and means to enable delivery of the evolving Internet applications. QoS specifically for evolving Internet applications is a fundamental requirement to provide satisfactory service delivery to users and also to manage network resources. QoS refers to the probability or ability of the network to provide a desired level of service for selected traffic on the network. Service levels are defined in terms of throughput, latency (delay), jitter (delay variation) and packet errors or loss. Different service levels are defined for different types or streams of traffic. To supply QoS, the network identifies different types or streams of traffic and processes these traffic classes differently to achieve (or attempt to achieve) the desired service level for each traffic class. The efficiency of any QoS scheme can be measured based on its ability to achieve the desired service levels for a typical combination of traffic classes. 4G wireless communication systems feel the requirement of transparent and seamless user roaming with end-to-end connectivity. These systems also required higher data rate, higher mobility support and QoS guarantees due to rapid development of wireless and mobile networks. All this requirements is possible for the operators to increase their service portfolio and for the users to experience context-rich and personalized services. Advantages for Subscribers and Operators: Subscribers Know that when the call was busy Users may call for a long time without queuing Easier for users to choose the best mobile phone operator. So, they know which one the operators has the best coverage. Operators Will know when the time is busy and how to solve the problem faster. Always to take the opportunity to improve their network coverage. Disadvantages for Subscribers and Operators: Subscribers Cannot make a call especially during the emergency call. Operators Increase the cost in order to improve the network. Will increase the number of cell in order to handle the large amount of subscribers. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION QUESTION 10 The Very Small Aperture Terminal, VSAT service is becoming more popular in Malaysia. Obtain information on VSAT service operator in Malaysia including examples of application, network topology, user equipments, lease procedure and services offered and their data rate. How can a VSAT system accommodate subscriber that need higher data rate services. Introductions of VSAT A Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) is a two-way satellite ground station with a dish antenna that is smaller than 3 meters (most VSAT antennas range from 75 cm to 1.2 m). VSAT data rates typically range from narrowband up to 4 Mbit/s. VSATs access satellites in geosynchronous orbit to relay data from small remote earth stations (terminals) to other terminals (in mesh configurations) or master earth station hubs (in star configurations). VSAT can be used for data, voice, video or internet applications [10]. It is used to communicate with to link together locations using satellite connectivity. Figure 3.1: A typical VSAT network depicting two way communications from remote terminals through a VSAT satellite to a central hub. MAXIS VSAT VSATs are an ideal means of communication in areas where terrestrial infrastructure is unavailable or unreliable. As such VSAT services are able to bring distant or remote business communities closer by eliminating geographical barriers and challenges that previously existed. This in turn transfers to an increase in productivity and overall cost efficiency for such communities. In addition to providing communication to remote areas, VSATs are also suitable in providing private networks in urban areas for organizations with many geographically dispersed branches that require connectivity to their Headquarters. VSAT services generally offer service reliability and availability that is equal to or higher than terrestrial services. Below are examples of type Maxis VSAT Services that can be used depends on the complexity of the network and the communications requirements; SCPC (Single Carrier Per Channel) Satellite bandwidth is dedicated to a single source. SCPC based design provides a point-to-point technology making it the VSAT equivalent. Supports voice, data, video communications. Advantages; Simple and reliable technologies. Low-cost equipment. Figure 3.2: SkyLine (SCPC) Service hub to remote configuration TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) Is a channel access method for shared medium network. Allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into different time slots. In Figure 3 (d), all VSATs share satellite resource on a time-slot basis and the remote VSATs also use inroutes for communicating with the hub or TDMA channels. There could be several inroutes associated with one outroute. Several VSATs share one inroute, so it also sharing the bandwidth. Typical inroutes operate at 64 or 128 Kbit/s. Critical to all TDMA schemes is the function of clock synchronization what is performed by the TDMA hub or master earth station. The VSATs may also access the inroute on a fixed assigned TDMA mode, where in each VSAT is allocated a specific time slot or slots. Figure 3.3: Typical SkyNet (TDM/TDMA)-configuration supporting various interactive data applications. ; Summarization of Maxis VSAT Services [6]: Services Service Description Typical Users SkyWayTMVSAT Broadband data and Voice service. Corporations with many branches requiring Broadband Data and telephony. Corporations requiring Internet access. Corporations or communities in remotes areas without telephone connectivity, i.e. plantations, timber camps and remote villages. SkyLine VSAT Dedicated leased line for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint connectivity. Corporations requiring dedicated links for communications between its HQ and branches. SkyLine-Plus VSAT Dedicated leased line with Frame Relay technology for mesh connectivity. Corporations requiring dedicated links for communications between sites within the VSAT network. Gyro-Stabilized VSAT Specialized VSAT service for maritime and offshore oil rigs. Upstream oil and gas corporations Shipping companies. The benefit of Maxis VSAT Services Uniform service quality All sites in the VSAT network receives the same high quality services, whether the location is urban or rural areas. Reach VSAT is a service that available anywhere no matter the place, whether in a remote area, forest or anywhere in the world. High relaibility availability VSAT networks offer high reliability as the points of failure are limited to two points means at any two locations in a communications link. This ensures minimal downtime while the service availability for VSAT networks. Question 11 Global Positioning System, GPS satellite is a navigation satellite that can offer services based on locations. Investigate among the service offered in Malaysia, user hardware and equipments, subscription (if any), and their limitation in term of accuracy. Identify similar service to complement GPS system particularly for mobile and handheld environment. The Global Positioning System (GPS), also known as Navstar, is a satellite based navigation system that can be used by anyone with appropriate receiver to pinpoint location on earth. The array of GPS satellites transmits highly accurate, time coded information that permits a receiver to calculate its exact location in terms of the latitude and longitude on earth as well as the altitude above the sea level [10]. GPS was developed by the U.S Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system that all elements of the military services would use for precision navigation. GPS consists of three parts: the space segment, the control segment, and the user segment [10]. The space segment is composed of 24 to 32 satellites in medium Earth orbit and also includes the boosters required to launch them into orbit [10]. The space segment is the constellation of satellites orbiting above the earth. It contains transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth. The receivers may be used on land, sea or air. Figure 4.1: GPS mapping aids are small enough to be mounted on a dashboard or stashed in a backpackers pack. They are popular with boaters too. Figure 4.2: The GPS space segment Figure 4.2 shows the fully implemented GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites plus 3 active space satellites. The satellites are arranged in six orbits, each orbit containing 3 or 4 satellites. User hardware and equipments GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit signal information to earth. GPS receivers take this information and use triangulation to calculate the users exact location. Essentially, the GPS receiver compares the time a signal was transmitted by a satellite with the time it was received. The time difference tells the GPS receiver how far away the satellite is. Now, with distance measurements from a few more satellites, the receiver can determine the users position and display it on the units electronic map [13]. f A GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites to calculate a 2D position (latitude and longitude) and track movement. With four or more satellites in view, the receiver can determine the users 3D position (latitude, longitude and altitude). Once the users position has been determined, the GPS unit can calculate other information, such as speed, bearing, track, trip distance, distance to destination, sunrise and sunset time and more[13]. The GPS receivers are extremely accurate, thanks to their parallel multi-channel design. Garmins 12 parallel channel receivers are quick to lock onto satellites when first turned on and they maintain strong locks, even in dense foliage or urban settings with tall buildings. Certain atmospheric factors and other sources of error can affect the accuracy of GPS receivers. Garmin ® GPS receivers are accurate to within 15 meters on average [13]. Newer Garmin GPS receivers with WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System) capability can improve accuracy to less than three meters on average. No additional equipment or fees are required to take advantage of WAAS. Users can also get better accuracy with Differential GPS (DGPS), which corrects GPS signals to within an average of three to five meters. The U.S. Coast Guard operates the most common DGPS correction service. This system consists of a network of towers that receive GPS signals and transmit a corrected signal by beacon transmitters. In order to get the corrected signal, users must have a differential beacon receiver and beacon antenna in addition to their GPS [13]. GPS satellites transmit two low power radio signals, designated L1 and L2. Civilian GPS uses the L1 frequency of 1575.42 MHz in the UHF band. The signals travel by line of sight, meaning they will pass through clouds, glass and plastic but will not go through most solid objects such as buildings and mountains. A GPS signal contains three different bits of information a pseudorandom code, ephemeris data and almanac data. The pseudorandom code is simply an I.D. code that identifies which satellite is transmitting information. You can view this number on your Garmin GPS units satellite page, as it identifies which satellites its receiving [13]. Ephemeris data, which is constantly transmitted by each satellite, contains important information about the status of the satellite (healthy or unhealthy), current date and time. This part of the signal is essential for determining a position. The almanac data tells the GPS receiver where each GPS satellite should be at any time throughout the day. Each satellite transmits almanac data showing the orbital information for that satellite and for every other satellite in the system [13]. The service offered in Malaysia /GPS Applications The primary application of the GPS is military and related navigation. GPS is used by all services for ships, aircraft of all sort, and group troops. Civilian uses have also increased dramatically because of the availability of many low-cost portable receivers. Most cavitations applications involve navigation, which is usually marine or aviation- related. Hikers and campers and other outdoors sports enthusiasts also use GPS. Commercial applications include surveying, mapmaking and construction. Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies, taxi, bus and train transportation. Police, fire, ambulance and forest services also use GPS. GPS based navigation systems are now widely available as accessories in cars to provide a continuous readout of current vehicle location. GPS is finding new applications every day. For instance, it is used to keep track of fleets of trunks. A GPS receiver in each trunk transmits its position data by way of a wireless connection, such as a wireless local- area network or cell phone. Many new cell phones contain a GPs receiver that automatically reports the location of the user people makes a 999 call. Most location based services will be used for 999 calls, eventually other location services may be developed for cell phones. Not all cell phones use GPS. Some use a unique triangulation method based on the cell phone being able to be in touch with at least three call sites. Finally, GPS receivers are so inexpensive an accurate that they have led to a new hobby called geocaching. In this sport, one team hides an item or treasure and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time. Limitation in term of accuracy Factors that can degrade the GPS signal and thus affect accuracy include the following: Ionosphere and troposphere delays The satellite signal slows as it passes through the atmosphere. The GPS system uses a built-in model that calculates an average amount of delay to partially correct for this type of error. Signal multipath This occurs when the GPS signal is reflected off objects such as tall buildings or large rock surfaces before it reaches the receiver. This increases the travel time of the signal, thereby causing errors. Receiver clock errors A receivers built-in clock is not as accurate as the atomic clocks onboard the GPS satellites. Therefore, it may have very slight timing errors. Orbital errors Also known as ephemeris errors, these are inaccuracies of the satellites reported location. Number of satellites visible The more satellites a GPS receiver can see, the better the accuracy. Buildings, terrain, electronic interference, or sometimes even dense foliage can block signal reception, causing position errors or possibly no position reading at all. GPS units typically will not work indoors, underwater or underground. Satellite geometry/shading This refers to the relative position of the satellites at any given time. Ideal satellite geometry exists when the satellites are located at wide angles relative to each other. Poor geometry results when the satellites are located in a line or in a tight grouping. Similar service to complement GPS system particularly for mobile and handheld environment. GPS-enabled Cell Phones Motorola and Blackberry were the first GPS-enable phones to proliferate the United States. Initially, MotorolaiDEN phones were commonly used for employee tracking on the business-oriented Nextel network. Then GPS enabled Blackberry phones, once used almost exclusively by corporate and government VIPs, began to penetrate the consumer market stimulated by the demand for phones with advanced messaging capability. Next came specialty devices produced under the names of Disney Mobile and Wherify Wireless targeting use by children and elderly. Now in 2009, a variety of GPS-enabled phones and tracking services are available, as you can see from the ads on this page. Locating People in an Emergency Stimulated by the events of 11 September 2001, the demand for enhanced 911 (e911) emergency calling capabilities pushed forward GPS tracking technology in cell phones. At the end of 2005, all cell phone carriers were required to provide the ability to trace cell phone calls to a location within 100 meters or less. Wireless Networks Your phone may have GPS and know exactly where it is, but it cant tell anyone else where you are unless you are connected to a wireless network. Here in the United States, the wireless networks used for GPS tracking are primarily those operated by cell phone carriers. It is not likely that you as an individual will negotiate network access with a carrier. It is more likely that you will select a solution including a cell phone provisioned to communicate in a certain way on a specific wireless network. List below are some carriers recommended for use with GPS cell phones and services. T-Mobile / Cingular / ATT The Global System for Mobile (GSM) communications as adopted by these carriers represents the network with the largest coverage footprint. Roaming agreements between these carriers provide end users with service throughout the country. GSM is also the prominent cellular network abroad. Sprint / Nextel, not so much because of coverage, but because of their emphasis on data. Nextel has created their own data formats and communication protocols for high bandwidth mobile electronics applications. This company, who gave new meaning to the term walkie-talkie, provides the most flexibility for the communication of GPS data between cell phones and location-based service pro

Compare and Contrast:Martin Luther King Jr. Essay -- essays research p

Compare and Contrast: To my understanding the letter that Martin Luther King Jr. composed while confined in the Birmingham Jail, is as one with the appeal that was given by David Walker. Both the letter and the appeal were pleas, pleas to the African American race. Not only to African Americans, but to my surprise and yours it was also written to all races suffering from the same injustice. These pleas were strong and very urgent. Our fears then and are still now today have kept our souls and minds in bondage to the immoral likings of others. David Walker so vividly quoted in a statement written before the preamble of his appeal. It is stated as such: I ask every man who has a heart, and is blessed with the privilege of believing-is not God a God of justice to all his creatures? Martin Luther King Jr. also vividly quoted a statement from his letter that was composed while confined in the Birmingham jail it goes as such: we have waited for more than 340 years for our constitutional and God given rights. The nations of Asia and Africa are moving with Jet like speed towards gaining political independence, but we stiff creep at horse- and -buggy pace toward gaining a cup of coffee at lunch counters. A statement also made we can stand and watch our mothers and fathers be beaten and killed for the likings of cruelty or the great need for the feeling of power, does that make us any lesser? Does it make them any greater? David Walkers statement can mean only one thing God cre...

Information Relevancy for Online Consumer Decision-making Essay

Introduction The emergency of Internet has largely changed the travelers’ decision-making process (Buhalis, 2007) and websites have become such an integral component of today's businesses that website effectiveness are of strategic importance to companies at large and hospitality and tourism businesses in specific. It has been a customary practice for hospitality and tourism companies to conduct business transactions to market themselves (Buhalis, 2003; Buhalis & Law, 2008; Wang, 2008) and to enhance communication between suppliers and consumers (Law, Qi, & Buhalis, 2009). As a result, website effectiveness has been a topical area that received sustained scrutiny from tourism and hospitality researchers. However, only a moderate level of success has been achieved (Law, Qi, & Buhalis, 2009). Recent literature in tourism website evaluation have attempted to investigate this area from various angles including website design and functionality, consumer hedonic experiences and perception of information quality (Law & Bai, 2006; Law, Qi, & Buhalis, 2009). However, only limited research has been conducted in evaluating online travel agencies’ (OTAs) websites and travel agencies’ websites (Kaynama & Black, 2000; Chung & Law, 2003; Roney & Ozturan, 2006). The majority of existing studies in this area are conducted in the context of hotels or tourism destinations. Methodologies employed by these studies are mainly using survey questionnaires to measure the overall satisfaction level of online travelers, or other exploratory approaches such as content analysis or attribute/functionality counting against a predefined checklist (Law, Qi, & Buhalis, 2009). It should be noted that most of the existing research tended to only measure the o... .../desire/action to make final booking. 2) Questions related to their perceptions how relevant the information presented at each webpage is in assisting their decision-making. 3) Questions related to their personal information. Expected Contribution Providing relevant and timely information at each page of a website can be crucial in supporting consumer decision making and therefore website effectiveness. This research would be able to identify specific types of information that online travelers would need at certain stage of their decision-making process. It will potentially provide recommendations to OTAs for online information optimization. Additionally this research could build academic linkage between traditional service industry where customer-employee interaction mostly occurs and online service industry where customer-computer interaction mostly occurs.